Section II: Chemical Control (11 of 22)
 

II.11 Baits for Controlling Rangeland Grasshoppers: An Overview
R. Nelson Foster

References

The first use of baits for grasshopper control began in the late 1800's. In 1878, the U.S. Entomological Commission reported bait experiments with mixtures of paris green and flour. In 1885, a bran bait containing arsenic, sugar, and water was used against grasshoppers in the San Joaquin Valley of California (Coquillet 1886). Over the next several decades, there was extensive testing to improve baits.

The work to improve baits concentrated on testing substances for attractiveness to grasshoppers and substitutes or diluents (diluting agents) for bran. Some of these substances were molasses (beet and cane), salt, calcium chloride, citrus fruits, lemon and vanilla extracts, geraniol nitobenzine, amyl acetate, propyl acetate, butyl acetate, apples, apple flavoring, anise, corn oil, fusel oil, saccharin, sugar, vinegar, stale beer, sawdust, shorts (grain byproducts), whey, soap, and even horse manure (Shotwell 1942). Some of the substrates studied to replace bran were sawdust, cottonseed hulls, rolled wheat, ground wheat screenings, citrus meal, chopped and ground alfalfa, ground flax fiber, ground peanut shells, bagasse, pear and apple pomace, peat moss, ground beet pulp, ground corncobs, chopped cornstalks, cornmeal, soybean meal, pea bran, oat hulls, and low-grade wheat flour (Parker 1952).

Over the years, different toxic substances were studied for effectiveness against grasshoppers. These toxins included paris green, white arsenic, dry and liquid sodium arsenate, barium fluosilicate, and sodium fluosilicate (Shotwell 1942). However, until 1942, when sodium fluosilicate became the preferred toxic agent, arsenic was most often used (Parker 1952). The chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides introduced in the 1940's soon replaced the previously used toxic agents. Because sprays of these insecticides were so effective, widespread use of baits discontinued by 1950.

New insecticides that were equally effective, but environmentally safer, later replaced the chlorinated hydrocarbons. The development of acceptable spray agents and spray technology, even though extremely efficient, did not eliminate the use of bran bait completely. Bait commonly was used against Mormon cricket (a longhorn grasshopper) in the 1970's and continues today.

Although liquid sprays are very effective and economically superior, baits offer several environmental advantages, and work has continued to improve them. Ewen (1990) reviewed some of the more recent reported results with baits. His review included studies on the organophosphates (dimethoate, pyridaphenthion, fenitrothion, and malathion), the carbamates (propoxur, carbofuran, carbaryl, and cloethocarb); and the synthetic pyrethroids (fenvalerate and cypermethrin). In addition to these chemicals, chlorpyrifos and acephate, both organic phosphates, and diflubenzuron, an insect growth regulator, have also recently been studied in bait formulations. Studies of these toxicants in baits are noted in the references at the end of this chapter.

Of the toxicants recently studied, dimethoate, fenitrothion, carbofuran, cloethocarb, chlorpyrifos, diflubenzuron, and carbaryl are very effective in bait formulations against susceptible species of grasshoppers. However, most of these toxicants are not currently registered for use in baits against grasshoppers. Carbaryl is currently registered for use in the United States against grasshoppers and is commonly used on rangeland when bait treatments are indicated. It has been extensively used as a preventive hot-spot treatment in the Grasshopper Integrated Pest Management Project's North Dakota demonstration area. Dimethoate is registered for use in Canada in baits against grasshoppers.

Even though extensive research has been conducted with baits, two general areas of concern still detract from their widespread use against grasshoppers. Grasshopper populations on rangeland are seldom composed of only species that readily consume baits, and control of bait-consuming species is usually less with baits than with sprays. The cost of applying baits, particularly by air, usually exceeds the cost of applying sprays. Also, because applicators have less experience with baits, they perceive more difficulty in calibrating equipment for baits than for sprays.

On the other hand, baits have some considerable environmental advantages. The increased interest in protecting the environment and reducing the effects on nontarget species make baits more attractive than in the past. Compared to sprays, baits require less active ingredient to achieve reduction in grasshopper populations and are much more specific toward grasshoppers and affect significantly fewer nontarget organisms than sprays. Baits are also easier to direct toward the target area than sprays. Also, the increased knowledge that allows for use of treatments that do not provide almost total control of pest species adds to the attractiveness of baits. Other chapters in this section describe the recent developments, methods, and potential strategies for the use of bait formulations for controlling grasshoppers.

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Suggested References

Capinera, J. L.; Hibbard, B. E. 1987. Bait formulations of chemical and microbial insecticides for suppression of crop-feeding grasshoppers. Journal of Agricultural Entomology. 4: 337-344.

Coquillet, D. W. 1886. Report on the locust of the San Joaquin Valley, California. Washington, DC: U.S. Commission on Agriculture Annual Report: 1885: 289-303.

Ewen, A. B. 1990. A synthesis paper on the use of insecticides formulated as baits for grasshopper control in Canada and the USA. Boletin de Sanidad Vegetal Plagas (Fuera de Serie) 20. 83-89.

Ewen, A. B.; Mukerji, M. K. 1987. Field evaluation of carbofuran bait against grasshopper (Orthoptera: Acrididae) populations in Saskatchewan. Canadian Entomologist 119: 537-540.

Ewen, A. B.; Mukerji, M. K. 1980. Evaluation of Nosema locustae (Microsporida) as a control agent of grasshopper populations in Saskatchewan. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 35: 295-303.

Jech, L. E.; Foster, R. N.; Colletto, D.; Walgenbach, D. D.; Roland, T. J.; Rodriguez, G. D.; Bohls, R.; Houston, R. D.; Meeks, W. K.; Queener, R. L.; Jackson, C. L.; Dines, J. L.; Puclik, M. J.; Scott, A. K. 1993. Field evaluation of diflubenzuron and carbaryl bran baits against grasshopper (Orthoptera: Acrididae) populations in South Dakota. Journal of Economic Entomology 86: 557-565.

Johnson, D. L.; Henry, J. E. 1987. Low rates of insecticides and Nosema locustae (Microsporidia: Nosematidae) on baits applied to roadsides for grasshopper (Orthoptera: Acrididae) control. Journal of Economic Entomology 80: 685-689.

Mukerji, M. K.; Ewen, A. B. 1984. Field evaluations of cypremethrin and carbaryl as sprays and baits for grasshopper (Orthoptera: Acrididae) control in Saskatchewan. Canadian Entomologist 116: 5-9.

Mukerji, M. K.; Ewen, A. B.; Craig, C. H.; Ford, R. J. 1981. Evaluation of insecticide-treated bran baits for grasshopper control in Saskatchewan (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Canadian Entomologist 113: 705-710.

Onsager, J. A.; Henry, J. E.; Foster, R. N.; Staten, R. T. 1980a. Acceptance of wheat bran by species of rangeland grasshoppers. Journal of Economic Entomology 73: 548-551.

Onsager, J. A.; Henry, J. E.; Foster, R. N. 1980b. A model for predicting efficacy of carbaryl bait for control of rangeland grasshoppers. Journal of Economic Entomology 73: 726-729.

Parker, J. R. 1952. Grasshoppers, In: Yearbook of Agriculture. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture: 595-604.

Quinn, M. A.; Kepner, R. L.; Walgenbach, D. D.; Bohls, R. A.; Pooler, P. D.; Foster, R. N.; Reuter, K. C.; Swain, J. L. 1989. Immediate and second-year effects of insecticide spray and bait treatments on populations of rangeland grasshoppers. Canadian Entomologist 121: 589-602.

Shotwell, R. L. 1942. Evaluation of baits and bait ingredients used in grasshopper control. Tech. Bull. 796. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture: 51.

Suggested References-Unpublished

Colletto, D.; Jech, L.; Foster, R. N.; Houston, R.; Puclik, M.; Scott, A. 1990. Efficacy of three different toxicants on three carriers in combinations for grasshopper control on improved rangeland near Medora, N.D., 1990. In: Cooperative Grasshopper Integrated Pest Management Project, 1990 annual report. Boise, ID: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service: 164-168.

Colletto, D.; Jech, L.; Foster, R. N.; Roland, T. J.; Jackson, C.; Patterson, J.; Meeks, W. 1989. Preliminary insecticidal value field trials on rangeland grasshoppers near Edgemont, South Dakota, 1989. In: Cooperative Grasshopper Integrated Pest Management Project, 1989 annual report. Boise, ID: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service: 190-193.

Jech, L. E.; Foster, R. N.; Colletto, D.; Drake, S.; Houston, R.; Black, L. 1991. Field trials of defatted corn and flaky wheat bran treated with either carbaryl or acephate for control of rangeland grasshoppers near Wheatland, Wyoming, 1991. In: Cooperative Grasshopper Integrated Pest Management Project, 1991 annual report. Boise, ID: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service: 87-89.

Jech, L. E.; Foster, R. N.; Colletto, D.; Walgenbach, D. D.; Bohls, R.; Rodriguez, G.; Burgess, J.; Meeks, W.; Queener, R. 1988. Field trials of chlorpyrifos and carbaryl bran baits for control of grasshopper on rangeland near Buffalo, South Dakota, 1988. In: Cooperative Grasshopper Integrated Pest Management Project, 1989 annual report. Boise, ID: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service: 194-206.

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